The Motherhood Penalty in Cross-National Perspective: The Importance of Work–Family Policies and Cultural Attitudes

Mothers' employment and earnings partly depend on social policies and cultural norms supporting women's paid and unpaid work. Previous research suggests that work–family policies are deeply shaped by their cultural context. We examine country variation in the associations between motherhood and earnings, in cultural attitudes surrounding women's employment, and in childcare and parental leave policies. We model how cultural attitudes moderate the impact of policies on women's earnings across countries. Parental leaves and public childcare are associated with higher earnings for mothers when cultural support for maternal employment is high, but have less positive or even negative relationships with earnings where cultural attitudes support the male breadwinner/female caregiver model.

Michelle Budig, Joya Misra, Irene Boeckmann (2012). The Motherhood Penalty in Cross-National Perspective: The Importance of Work-Family Policies and Cultural Attitudes. Social Politics 19(2):163-193.

Work-family policies and the effects of children on women's employment hours and wages

Welfare state generosity around work-family policies appears to have somewhat contradictory effects, at least for some measures of gender equality. Work-family policies, in encouraging higher levels of women's labor market participation, may have also contributed to lower wage-levels for women relative to men, for instance. We consider the relationship between particular work-family policies and mothers’ employment outcomes. Analyses use data on employed women aged 25–45 from the Luxembourg Income Study for 21 countries across Eastern and Western Europe, North America, Israel, and Australia. We estimate within each country differences in employment hours and wages for women based on their number of children. Then, we examine the association of estimated per child penalties in wage and employment hours with country-level data on leaves and childcare. Work-family policies are generally associated with positive employment outcomes for mothers, relative to childless women. Work-facilitating policies such as childcare for young children have decisively positive effects on mothers’ employment hours and wages. Work-reducing policies, such as parental leave, however, can have positive effects if the leaves are moderate in length, but tradeoffs if the leaves are long.

Joya Misra, Michelle Budig, Irene Boeckmann (2011), Work-family policies and the effects of children on women's employment hours and wages. In: Community, Work & Family 14(2).


Cross-National Patterns in Individual and Household Employment and Work Hours by Gender and Parenthood

This chapter examines how gender, parenthood, and partner's employment are related to individual's employment patterns, analyzing paid work at individual and household levels. Analyses use individual-level data from the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) wave 5 for 19 countries, for adults aged 25–45. We use logistic regression and a two-stage Heckman sample selection correction procedure to estimate the effects of gender and parenthood on the probabilities of employment and full-time employment. The variation between mothers and childless women is larger than that between childless men and childless women; differences in women's employment patterns are driven by gendered parenthood, controlling for women's human capital, partnered status and household income. Fathers and mothers' employment hours in the same household vary cross-nationally. Mothers' employment behaviors can identify important differences in the strategies countries have pursued to balance work and family life.

Joya Misra, Michelle J. Budig, Irene Boeckmann (2011), Cross-National Patterns in Individual and Household Employment and Work Hours by Gender and Parenthood, in David Brady (ed.) Comparing European Workers Part A (Research in the Sociology of Work, Volume 22), Emerald Group Publishing Limited, pp.169-207

Language Heterogamy and Relationship Dynamics: Conflict, Commitment, and Communication

This paper examines dynamics in relationships between partners who have different first languages. Using data from a sample of Swiss university students, this study examines if language heterogamy is a deficit or asset for couples. Results are mixed. Conflict and relationship distress are higher and commitment is lower in cross language couples as compared with same language couples. However, cross and same language couples do not differ in levels of communication problems. Communication problems are related to dynamics in cross language and same language couples in diverse ways. These results are discussed in terms of the unique characteristics of cross language couples, including particular necessity and willingness to work on communication.

Carrie Yodanis, Irene Boeckmann, Corinne Sieber (2007). Language Heterogamy and Relationship Dynamics: Conflict, Commitment, and Communication. International Journal of Sociology of the Family 33(2): 241-261.